- THE ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE
- QUR’AN 18:83–102
- Kevin van Bladel
- In 1889 E.A. Wallis Budge edited a few Syriac texts about Alexander the Great
- including the Syriac version of the Alexander Romance of Pseudo-Callisthenes.
- Among these was the first edition of a Syriac work called Neshanâ dîleh
- d-Aleksandrôs, roughly “The Glorious Deeds of Alexander,” extant in the same
- five manuscripts as the Syriac Alexander Romance. 1 Though often discussed in
- the context of the Alexander Romance tradition, and clearly inspired by traditions
- about Alexander’s conquests like the Romance, this Neshanâ is nevertheless an
- entirely different work with its own history and a different story to tell (to be
- dealt with later in detail). Budge named it “A Christian Legend Concerning
- Alexander” to distinguish it from the Alexander Romance itself. Recent scholar-
- ship has shortened this name to “the Alexander Legend” to distinguish it from the
- Alexander Romance. I follow this convention here.
- The next year (1890), Theodor Nöldeke published his study of the Alexander
- Romance, much of which was based on the Syriac version newly available in
- Budge’s edition. In this he also devoted a few pages to the Alexander Legend,
- arguing that it was in fact the source for an episode in the Qur’an, specifically the
- Qur’anic story of Dhu l-Qarnayn (Q 18:83–102). 2 He stated that the Alexander
- Legend must have been transmitted orally to Muhammad along with the other
- ancient biblical and traditional stories circulating in the environment of Mecca. 3
- To prove this relationship Nöldeke indicated a few specific, important elements
- of the story of Alexander’s journeys appearing in both the Syriac Alexander
- Legend and the Qur’an.
- In the century since then, his discovery seems to have become almost forgotten
- in Qur’anic studies. For example, the recent Encyclopaedia of the Qur’an article
- “Alexander” does not even mention the Syriac Alexander Legend or Nöldeke’s
- thesis on the matter, though there could be no more appropriate place for it. 4
- Moreover, some recent scholarship has brought considerable confusion into the
- study of Alexander stories in relation to the Qur’an. 5 The subject therefore
- deserves to be revisited. As I hope to show, it still has much more to offer than
- even Nöldeke expected.
- 175KEVIN VAN BLADEL
- The present investigation will first show that Nöldeke was basically correct in
- his view: the Qur’an 18:83–102 is a retelling of the story found in this particular
- Syriac text. But that is just the beginning of the matter. Recent publications
- by scholars of Syriac and Greek apocalyptic texts of the early seventh century,
- especially several articles by G.J. Reinink, offer a precise understanding of the
- context in which this Syriac Alexander Legend was composed and its political and
- religious purposes in that context. These studies make it possible to shed new
- light on the use of the Alexander Legend’s story in the Qur’an and on the concerns
- of Muhammad’s community. Furthermore, once the affiliation of the Arabic and
- Syriac texts is established and the character of that affiliation is identified, it is
- possible to demonstrate (perhaps unexpectedly) the reliability of the traditional
- lexicography as well as the soundness of the Arabic text of this Qur’anic passage.
- All of these matters will be discussed later.
- I am deliberately avoiding entering into a discussion of other texts related to the
- Syriac Alexander Legend identified by previous scholars. Traces of the ancient
- story of Gilgamesh are found in the Syriac Alexander Legend and in Q 18:83–102.
- That these traces appear in both is unsurprising since both tell essentially the same
- story. But some scholars have argued that the passage immediately preceding the
- Dhu l-Qarnayn episode in the Qur’an, a story about Moses (Q 18:60–82), also
- contains different traces of the Gilgamesh story. This is a matter of decades-long
- controversy and it deserves further special studies of its own. 6 Since two adjacent
- episodes in Qur’an 18 seem to contain material derived from the Gilgamesh story,
- modern scholars have tended to search for a single source common to both
- of them. Medieval Qur’an commentaries associated the two episodes together,
- too, though it seems for different reasons, with the result that the Qur’an
- commentaries are dragged into the modern confusion. I will also avoid dis-
- cussing other texts in Syriac and in Greek that draw material from the Syriac
- Alexander Legend. One of these is the so-called Song of Alexander (also called
- Alexander Poem in modern scholarship), falsely ascribed to Jacob of Serugh
- (d. 521). It was composed several years after and in reaction to the prose
- Alexander Legend, but the story it relates is considerably different from that in
- the Alexander Legend and does not exactly match those in the Qur’anic tale of
- Dhu l-Qarnayn. What is most confusing for modern scholars is that still more
- traces of the Gilgamesh story, different from those in the Alexander Legend, are
- found in this Song of Alexander, but these are similar to the traces of Gilgamesh
- allegedly found in Q 18:60–82, the Moses story just mentioned. The coincidence
- has never been adequately explained, particularly since recourse must be had to a
- poorly documented late, probably oral tradition of the Gilgamesh story. Then
- there are other later seventh-century Christian apocalypses, such as the De fine
- mundi of Pseudo-Ephraem and the influential Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius.
- These also drew upon the Alexander Legend, evidently a widely known text in the
- seventh century. 7
- The bewildering interrelationships of all these traditions have made it difficult
- for scholars to arrive at a consensus about them. But the reason that I am avoiding
- 176ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR’AN
- discussing all these related texts here is that they are irrelevant to the thesis that
- the Dhu l-Qarnayn episode in the Qur’an is derived from or retells the story
- found in the Syriac Alexander Legend. The account in Q 18:83–102 does not
- precisely match a story found anywhere other than in this one text, but previous
- attempts to deal with the problem have become confused by discussing all of the
- aforementioned traditions together. For example, one recent account, published
- twice, posits complicated interrelationships between the two episodes in Qur’an
- 18:60–102, the Qur’an commentaries, the Alexander Romance tradition, and the
- Song of Alexander, unfortunately just causing further misunderstanding and
- omitting almost any account of the crucially relevant Alexander Legend. 8 In
- the present article, however, only two main problems are to be discussed: the
- relationship between the Alexander Legend and Qur’an 18:83–102 and the
- historical context of this relationship.
- The Syriac and the Arabic texts compared
- To prove convincingly an affiliation between this passage of the Qur’an and the
- Syriac Alexander Legend, a close comparison is required, closer at least than the
- brief treatment that Nöldeke gave to it. Since the relevant Arabic text, Qur’an
- 18:83–102, amounts to only twenty verses, they can all be given here in translation.
- 83. And they are asking you about the Two-Horned One (Dhu l-Qarnayn).
- Say: I will relate for you a glorious record (dhikr) about him.
- 84. We granted him power in the earth
- and gave him a heavenly course (sabab) 9 out of every thing.
- 85. So he followed a heavenly course
- 86. until, when he reached the place of the sun’s setting,
- he found it setting in a fetid spring
- and he found by it a people.
- We said, “O Two-Horned One, either you will punish (them) or do them
- a favor.”
- 87. He said, “Whoever does wrong, we will punish him,
- and then he will be sent back to his Lord
- and He will punish them in an unknown way.”
- 88. “And whoever believes and acts righteously,
- he will have the best reward and we will declare ease for him by our
- command.”
- 89. Then he followed a heavenly course
- 90. until, when he arrived at the sun’s rising place,
- he found it rising over a people for whom We did not make a shelter
- beneath it.
- 91. Thus We knew everything that he encountered.
- 92. Then he followed a heavenly course
- 93. until, when he arrived between two barriers,
- 177KEVIN VAN BLADEL
- he found outside them a people
- who could scarcely understand speech.
- 94. They said, “O Two-Horned One, Yajuj and Majuj are destroying
- the land.
- Shall we make a payment to you on the condition that you make a barrier
- between us and them?”
- 95. He said, “The power my Lord has given me is better, so, help me,
- with strength, that I may make a barricade between you and them.”
- 96. “Bring me blocks of iron.” Eventually, when he had leveled it off
- with the two clifftops, he said, “Blow.” Eventually, when he had made
- it a fire, he said, “Bring me brass that I can pour upon it.”
- 97. Thus they could not surmount it and they could not break through it.
- 98. He said, “This is a mercy from my Lord. When His promise comes,
- my Lord will make it a heap of earth and my Lord’s promise is true.”
- 99. And We shall leave them on that day surging like waves 10 against
- each other
- and the horn will be blown and We shall gather them all together
- 100. and We shall truly show Gehenna that day to the unbelievers
- 101. whose eyes were covered from recollecting Me, nor could they hear.
- 102. Do those who disbelieve plan to take My servants under Me as
- protectors?
- We have prepared Gehenna as a guest-house for the unbelievers!
- For the purposes of this study, this can be divided into five parts.
- 1
- 2
- 3
- 4
- 5
- an introduction to Dhu l-Qarnayn, the Two-Horned One (83–4),
- his journey to the sun’s setting and his punishment of unjust people there
- (85–8),
- his journey to the sun’s rising place where the people have no shelter from
- the sun (89–91),
- his journey to a place threatened by Yajuj and Majuj where he is asked to
- build a protective wall between two mountains, culminating in his uttering a
- brief prophecy (92–8), and finally
- God’s first-person warning of the events to come (99–102).
- The Syriac Legend of Alexander is quite a bit longer, twenty-one pages of Syriac
- text in the edition. A summary of the story, including its relevant details, here
- follows, showing how each of the five parts of the Qur’anic story finds a match
- in the Syriac text. Readers with insufficient knowledge of Syriac may find
- Budge’s English translation to be helpful but should be warned that it strays into
- error on some important points.
- The story of the Neshanâ begins when King Alexander summons his court to
- ask them about the outer edges of the world, for he wishes to go to see what
- surrounds it. His advisors warn him that there is a fetid sea, Oceanos (Ôqyanôs), 11
- 178ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR’AN
- like pus, surrounding the earth, and that to touch those waters is death. Alexander
- is undeterred and wishes to go on this quest. He prays to God, whom he addresses
- as the one who put horns upon his head, for power over the entire earth, and he
- promises God to obey the Messiah should he arrive during his lifetime or, if not,
- to put his own throne in Jerusalem for the Messiah to sit upon when he does
- come. This in essence matches Q 18:83–4, part one earlier, where God gives the
- two-horned one power over the entire earth.
- On the way, he stops in Egypt where he borrows seven thousand Egyptian
- workers of brass and iron from the king of Egypt to accompany his huge army.
- Then they set sail for four months and twelve days until they reach a distant land.
- Alexander asks the people there if they have any prisoners condemned to death in
- their prisons, and he asks that those evil-doers (‘abday-bîmê) be brought to him.
- He takes the prisoners and sends them into the fetid sea in order to test the
- potency of the poisonous waters. All the evil-doers die, so Alexander, realizing
- how deadly it is, gives up his attempt to cross the water. Instead he goes to a place
- of bright water, up to the Window of the Heavens that the sun enters when it sets,
- where there is a conduit of some kind leading through the heavens toward the
- place where the sun rises in the east. Though the text is completely vague here in
- its description of spaces, apparently Alexander follows the sun through its course
- to the east during the night but “descends” (nahet) at the mountain called Great
- Mûsas. 12 His troops go with him. We are also told that when the sun rises in the
- eastern land, the ground becomes so hot that to touch it is to be burnt alive, so that
- people living there flee the rising sun to hide in caves and in the water of the sea.
- Alexander’s journeys west and east match Q 18:85–91, parts two and three
- earlier, exactly in many specific details and in fact make some sense of the
- cryptic Qur’anic story (though the Syriac leaves the specifics of his itinerary here
- fairly murky).
- We next find Alexander traveling at the headwaters of the Euphrates and the
- Tigris, where he and his armies stop at locales given very specific place-names.
- This specificity has rightly been taken as due to the Syriac author’s personal
- familiarity with the upper Tigris region, probably his homeland. 13 Yet Alexander
- continues northwards into mountains, evidently the Caucasus, until he comes to
- a place under Persian rule where there is a narrow pass. The locals complain about
- the savage Huns who live on the opposite side of the pass. The names of their
- kings are listed to him, the first two of which are Gog and Magog. Alexander is
- treated to a vivid description of the barbarism of the Huns. Among the gruesome
- details it is reported that their cries are more terrible than those of a lion. The
- Huns have no qualms in killing babies and pregnant women. In short, they do not
- know civilization but only brutality. The people complain to Alexander that these
- savages raid with impunity and they hope his dominion will be established. After
- he satisfies his anthropological and geographical curiosity about the far northern
- peoples, Alexander asks the locals if they want a favor, and they answer that they
- would follow his command. So he suggests building a wall of brass and iron to
- hold out the Huns. Together they accomplish the task with the help of the
- 179KEVIN VAN BLADEL
- Egyptian metalworkers. This account matches Q 18:92–8, part four earlier, in
- precise detail.
- The next part of the story is crucial to dating the text. Alexander puts an
- inscription on the gate containing a prophecy for events to follow his lifetime.
- These events are given precise dates. First he says that after 826 years, the
- Huns will break through the gate and go by the pass above the Haloras River 14
- to plunder the lands. Then after 940 years, there will come a time of sin and
- unprecedented worldwide war. “The Lord will gather together the kings and their
- hosts,” he will give a signal to break down the wall, and the armies of the Huns,
- Persians, and Arabs will “fall upon each other.” 15 So many troops will pass
- through the breach in the wall that the passage will actually be worn wider by the
- spear-points going through. “The earth shall melt through the blood and dung of
- men.” 16 Then the kingdom of the Romans will enter this terrible war and they will
- conquer all, up to the edges of the heavens. In closing, Alexander cites the prophet
- Jeremiah, 1:14, “And evil shall be opened from the north upon all the inhabitants
- of the earth.” Clearly this corresponds closely with Q 18:99–102, the fifth and last
- part of the story of Dhu l-Qarnayn.
- There are still some details and a conclusion to the story in the Syriac text that
- have no corresponding part in the Qur’an. When Alexander comes into conflict
- with the King of Persia, called Tûbarlaq, then, with the help of the Lord, who
- appears on the chariot of the Seraphim along with the angelic host, Alexander’s
- armies are inspired to conquer the king of Persia. When he is captured, the Persian
- king Tûbarlaq promises to give Alexander tribute for fifteen years in return for a
- restoration of the borders. But Tûbarlaq’s diviners predict that at the end of the
- world, the Romans will kill the king of Persia and will lay waste to Babylon and
- Assyria. Tûbarlaq himself puts the prophecy in writing for Alexander, saying that
- the Romans will conquer the entire world and rule it all before handing power
- over to the returning Messiah. The Alexander Legend finally comes to an end
- with the remark that at the end of Alexander’s life, he establishes his silver throne
- in Jerusalem just as he had promised. This last episode is not reflected in the
- Qur’anic story, but it has proven important in recent scholarship in assigning a
- date to the Syriac text (to be discussed later).
- Precise correspondences between the two texts
- Many of the correspondences between the Syriac and the Arabic stories are so
- obvious that they do not need special attention. Simply relating both stories
- together establishes their extraordinary similarity. However, some correspon-
- dences require emphasis and further comment.
- Alexander is twice said in the Syriac to have been granted horns on his head
- by God. Once it is in a prayer that he himself utters, referring to his horns, and
- the second time we are told that they were horns of iron. 17 Though Alexander
- had been portrayed with horns as early as his own time, here one finds the epithet
- Dhu l-Qarnayn, the Horned One, as one element matching the present Syriac text. 18
- 180ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR’AN
- When Alexander came to the people in the west, he tested the efficacy of the
- deadly, fetid waters with the lives of convicts. This passage helps to explain the
- option given, for no apparent reason, by God to Dhu l-Qarnayn in the Qur’an:
- either to punish the people or to do them a kindness. Dhu l-Qarnayn says he will
- punish only wrongdoers (man zalama), who are like the prisoners sentenced to
- death in the Syriac text, described there as evil-doers (‘abday-bîmê).
- The Syriac text has Alexander travel from that point, near to where the sun sets,
- in the direction of the place where the sun rises, just as does Dhu l-Qarnayn in the
- Qur’an. The sun does not exactly set in the fetid water, but more vaguely nearby.
- And it is only this Syriac text that explains the meaning of Q 18:90, where the
- otherwise unknown eastern people who have no cover from the sun are mentioned.
- On his third journey, the people who can hardly understand speech are explained
- by the Syriac text as “Huns,” here a generic term for Central Asian pastoralists,
- who appeared to the residents of the Middle East as savages. Their allegedly
- bestial barbarism is explained at length in the Syriac. The Qur’anic text saying
- that they “could scarcely understand speech” together with reference by name to
- Gog and Magog makes sense only in the context of this Syriac tale.
- Dhu l-Qarnayn’s ability to build a wall of iron and brass is explained in the
- Syriac story by his being accompanied by seven thousand Egyptian “workers
- in brass and iron,” precisely the same metals. In both texts our hero builds the
- wall at a place between two mountains in order to fend off savages. Though
- the tradition of Alexander’s wall holding off the Huns is an ancient one going
- back at least to Josephus (d. ca 100), who specifies that the gates were of iron,
- nevertheless the details of the Arabic account are all matched only by this Syriac
- Alexander Legend. 19 Most importantly, in both texts the hero issues a prophecy
- upon completing the fortification foretelling the end of the world in a time of
- great battles among nations.
- Thus, quite strikingly, almost every element of this short Qur’anic tale finds a
- more explicit and detailed counterpart in the Syriac Alexander Legend. In both
- texts the related events are given in precisely the same order. Already earlier
- several cases of specific words that are exact matches between the Syriac and the
- Arabic were indicated. The water at the place where the sun sets is “fetid” in both
- texts, a perfect coincidence of two uncommon synonyms (Syriac saryâ, Arabic
- hami’a). Also, the wall that Alexander builds is made specifically of iron and brass
- in both texts. We are told in the Syriac that God will “gather together the kings and
- their hosts,” which finds a nearly perfect match in Q 18:99: “the horn will be
- blown and we shall gather them together.” 20 The proper names of Yajuj and Majuj
- are not uniquely matched by this Syriac text (where they appear as Agôg 21 and
- Magôg), for their tradition is derived from the books of Ezekiel and the Apocalypse
- of John, but they do still count as specific word correspondences between the
- Syriac and Arabic texts in question here. In the Qur’an God is characterized as
- saying, “We shall leave them on that day surging like waves against each other,”
- wa-tarakna ba‘dahum yawma’idhin yamuju fi ba‘din, while the Syriac says similarly
- “and kingdoms will fall upon each other,” w-naplan malkwata hda ‘al hda.
- 181KEVIN VAN BLADEL
- The title of the Syriac work is “Neshanâ of Alexander.” The word neshanâ
- means “glory” or “victory” but was often used to refer to a narrative account of
- a person’s heroic acts. 22 In Q 18:83 God is portrayed as commanding Muhammad
- to say that he will recite a dhikr about the Dhu l-Qarnayn. Dhikr in Arabic
- has most of the same connotations as Syriac neshanâ: it refers to glory or good
- repute but it also can refer to an account remembered about someone. Could the
- word dhikr in Q 18:83 be a translation of the very title of the Syriac Alexander
- Legend? It is a tempting consideration, but there are a few other instances in the
- Qur’an where a dhikr of a person is related without any apparent reference to a
- written work. 23
- The translation of sabab (pl. asbab), occurring in Q 18:84, 85, 89, and 92 as
- “heavenly course” requires some explanation. These are conventionally translated
- merely as the “ways” that Dhu l-Qarnayn is made to follow, since among the
- many meanings of sabab in Arabic are prominently “means” and “ways of
- access.” However, Arabic lexicographers and much other evidence attest to the
- early use of the word to mean in particular heavenly courses, specifically cords
- leading to heaven along which a human might travel: asbab al-sama’, “ways to
- heaven” or “sky-cords.” 24 In fact this is probably the only meaning of the word
- occurring in the Qur’an, appearing in four other places. 25 Nor are these isolated
- cases of such a usage in Arabic. For example, it is also attested in the poetry
- of al-A‘sha (d. 625), an exact contemporary of Muhammad, where the phrase
- wa-ruqqita asbaba l-sama’i bi-sullam, “and were you to be brought up the gateways
- of heaven by a flight of steps,” is found with the synonymous, variant reading
- abwab al-sama’ “gates of heaven.” 26 Thus, the translation given earlier, though
- unconventional, is not only suitable but likely. In the case of Dhu l-Qarnayn’s tale,
- it matches the window of heaven (kawwteh da-mmayyâ) 27 through which the sun
- passes on its course, and which Alexander follows, in the Syriac Alexander
- Legend. The remaining problem is then to account for the third “way” mentioned
- in Q 18:92, the northward path that is not connected with any course of a heavenly
- body in the Alexander Legend. Here one may excuse the Arabic as following the
- pattern of the earlier journeys. The matter is bound up with the problem of how
- these heavenly courses were imagined, something I treat in detail elsewhere. 28
- If there were a closer correspondence of the Syriac and Arabic, it would be
- possible to argue that one was just a much modified translation of the other. As it
- is, however, the correspondences shown earlier are still so exact that it is obvious
- in comparison that the two texts are at least connected very closely. They relate
- the same story in precisely the same order of events using many of the same
- particular details. Every part of the Qur’anic passage has its counterpart in the
- Syriac, except that in the Qur’an the story is told through the first-person account
- of God. Also, as explained earlier, the Qur’an does not include the last part of the
- Alexander Legend, in which Alexander defeats the Persian emperor Tûbarlaq,
- who writes his own prophecy down for Alexander and gives it to him, to the effect
- that the Romans would one day decisively defeat the Persians, establishing a
- worldwide Christian rule that would remain until the return of the Messiah.
- 182ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR’AN
- The Qur’anic account puts more emphasis on the coming end of things and God’s
- judgment and, not surprisingly, does not mention any expectation of universal
- Christian empire for the Romans.
- Dating and contextualizing the Syriac
- Alexander Legend
- At this point I think there can be no doubt whatsoever of the affiliation between
- the Qur’anic passage and the Syriac Alexander Legend. The question now becomes
- how to specify that affiliation. Here we will be assisted by finding a date and
- historical context for the Syriac text. Fortunately G.J. Reinink has devoted many
- articles to the problems posed by this Alexander Legend and related texts which
- have succeeded in determining definitively where, why, and when the Alexander
- Legend was written. I employ his detailed studies extensively in what follows, and
- the reader is urged to pursue them for further information that can be used
- to assign a date to this Syriac work. 29 This section may seem to be a bit of an
- excursus, but it is crucially important to contextualize the Syriac text in order to
- relate it to the Qur’an.
- The Alexander Legend is an apocalyptic text in which the ancient Alexander is
- portrayed as presenting a prophecy written long ago for events to come, which
- were intended to be understood by the audience at the real time of authorship
- as referring to events leading up to and including their own time. This is how
- many texts of the apocalyptic genre work. Thus the date of composition for such
- apocalypses can often be found by locating the latest point at which events
- allegedly predicted match actual historical events. Where the events “predicted”
- diverge from history, there one usually can find the date of the composition. The
- message of the apocalypse for its own time is not just in the events it describes,
- but rather in the way it describes these events and the future that it expects to
- unfold given what has occurred.
- In the Syriac Legend, Alexander’s prophecy, written on the wall he himself
- erected, gives two dates marking the invasion of Central Asian nomads, called
- Huns, whose penetration of the great wall and arrival at the headwaters of the
- Tigris are portentous events to be taken as signs of the final battles preceding
- Christ’s return and the end of time. Alexander specifies how many years must
- elapse before these events take place. Already Nöldeke in 1890 calculated the
- dates according to the Seleucid Era (beginning 1 October 312 BCE ) normally
- followed in Syriac tradition, also called the Era of the Greeks and, importantly,
- the Era of the Alexander. 30 The first of the two dates is thus converted from
- 826 years later to 514–15 CE , precisely the time of the invasion of the nomadic
- Sabirs who entered Syria and Anatolia. 31 Evidently this invasion, which holds no
- importance in the narrative, serves just as a key for the contemporary audience of
- the text that they can use to verify the accuracy of the second, more elaborate
- prophecy, associated with a later date. In any case, no scholar after Nöldeke has
- disputed the calculation of this first dating, as far as I have seen. 32
- 183KEVIN VAN BLADEL
- The second of the two dates, 940 years after Alexander, which marks the time
- of the final war preceding the Messiah’s return according to the prophecy, is
- converted likewise to 628–9 CE . The message of the prophecy actually concerns
- events around this date, which coincides with the end of a long and extremely
- difficult war between the Persians and the Romans (603–30) during which
- Jerusalem was devastated, the relic of the True Cross stolen from that city, and the
- Persians conquered Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, occupying Anatolia, too, and
- they even besieged Constantinople itself in 626 CE in concert with the Avars, who
- invaded from the north. The Byzantine remainder of the Roman Empire was only
- barely saved from the Persian onslaught by the emperor Heraclius’ daring campaign
- through Armenia, ending in the winter of 627–8 with a surprise invasion into
- Mesopotamia and damaging raids on the rich estates around Ctesiphon. In these
- invasions the Türks joined the Byzantines in raids south of the Caucasus at
- Heraclius’ invitation and afterwards continued to make war on Persian territory in
- Transcaucasia, plundering until 630. The Byzantine invasion of Mesopotamia led
- the Persian nobles to remove their King of Kings, Khosro II, from power in
- February of 628 and to negotiate for peace. 33 Persian forces occupying former
- Byzantine territory withdrew to Persia in 629, and early in 630 Heraclius person-
- ally returned the relic of the True Cross to Jerusalem in a formal celebration.
- (Just a few months before Heraclius’ arrival in Jerusalem, tradition tells us, the
- inhabitants of Mecca surrendered peacefully to Muhammad and submitted to his
- government.) Given the date that Alexander’s prophecy signals, 628–9 CE , it must
- be referring to the devastating wars of that time and their successful end for
- the Romans.
- Reinink has shown that the Alexander Legend demonstrates, through its prophecy
- and its use of Alexander to prefigure the emperor Heraclius, detailed knowledge
- of the events of that war and its resolution with the restoration of the earlier
- borders, a peace treaty, and a final reference to Jerusalem. Using this information,
- too much to repeat entirely here, he has persuasively argued that the Alexander
- Legend was composed just after 628, perhaps in 630, the year in which Heraclius
- restored the cross to Jerusalem. 34 In the course of the war, while the Byzantines
- were very hard pressed by the Persians, Heraclius resorted to highly religious
- propaganda in order to rally his allies and to improve Roman morale. This prop-
- aganda has received recent scholarly attention. 35 Likewise Heraclius’ attempts
- to eradicate the schisms in the Church after the war are well known. Reinink
- considers Alexander Legend to be a piece of pro-Heraclian postwar propaganda
- designed to promote the emperor’s political cause not long after the war’s end,
- re-establishing Roman rule over provinces that had been under Persian power
- for well over a decade and trying to overcome the schismatic Christological
- differences dividing his Chalcedonian court from the monophysites of the
- provinces recently recovered from the Persians. His thesis is that the Syriac
- Legend of Alexander was composed “shortly after 628” (i.e. in 629 or 630) by an
- inhabitant of Amida or Edessa, or some other place near to those, in support of
- 184ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR’AN
- Heraclius. 36 He argues that the monophysite Syrians were the primary audience
- (although it is possible that the story was intended also to win over monophysites
- of other nations such as Arabs). 37 Heraclius’ visit to Edessa in late 629 might have
- been an occasion for its composition. It is also possible that the text was written
- a few months later when Heraclius restored the cross to Jerusalem. 38
- The specific details in the Alexander Legend that reflect this historical context
- are numerous. But unlike the Qur’anic story of Dhu l-Qarnayn, the Syriac
- text ends with the Persian king’s own prophecy containing what Reinink has
- characterized rightly as a message of Byzantine Imperial eschatology: the
- prediction that one Byzantine emperor will soon establish a worldwide Christian
- rule which will be followed by the return of the Messiah. 39 This was intended to
- counter the belief, widely held at the time as many sources show, that the total
- destruction of the Roman/Byzantine Empire and even the end of the world were
- imminent. As Reinink sums it up, the author of the Alexander Legend
- wants to demonstrate the special place of the Greek-Roman empire, the
- fourth empire of the Daniel Apocalypse, in God’s history of salvation,
- from the very beginning of the empire until the end of times, when the
- empire will acquire world dominion. He created an Alexander-Heraclius
- typology, in which the image of Alexander is highly determined by
- Byzantine imperial ideology, so that his contemporaries would recognize
- in Heraclius a new Alexander, who, just like the founder of the empire,
- departed to the east at the head of his army and combated and defeated
- the Persians.
- (G.J. Reinink, “Heraclius, the New Alexander.
- Apocalyptic Prophecies during the
- Reign of Heraclius,” 26)
- By now it should be amply clear that the Alexander Legend is the product of
- a very specific, identifiable historical and cultural environment, the end of a
- devastating war widely believed to carry eschatological implications, ending with
- Heraclius’ campaign in 628 and in 629 with the final withdrawal of the Persian
- armies. This needs to be held in mind when the relationship between this text and
- the Qur’an is considered.
- If this is the message of the Alexander Legend, what is the point in having
- Alexander make his journeys west, then east, then north, then return south? The
- answer is clearer when one imagines a map of his itinerary. In effect Alexander’s
- travels make a sign of the cross over the whole world. This symbol seems to have
- been overlooked by other commentators, but I believe it was intended by the
- author of the Alexander Legend. The sign of the cross was the emblem of victory
- for the Christian empire, and the prophecies in the Legend indicate the imminent
- universal rule of the Christian empire. One may even speculate that this cross-
- shaped itinerary was intended symbolically to refer to Heraclius’ return of the
- 185KEVIN VAN BLADEL
- relic of the True Cross early in 630 to Jerusalem, the city where Alexander places
- his throne at the end of the Alexander Legend. Alexander’s journeys describe the
- symbol of Christian Roman power across the entire world, which it will come to
- rule in its entirety according to the prophecy.
- But what is the point of having Alexander build the Wall of Gog and Magog?
- According to Greek and Latin traditions from the first century CE onward,
- Alexander was indeed credited with building gates in the Caucasus to keep out
- invaders. These gates, described by many ancient Greek and Latin authors, were
- usually identified as located at the pass of Darial in the middle of the Caucasus
- (Arabic Bab al-Lan). 40 However, in the seventh century, just around the time of
- the Syriac Alexander Legend, confusion arose concerning the location of
- Alexander’s fortified pass. It now came to be identified with a gated wall situated
- on the Caspian coast that had been built more recently (Arabic Bab al-Abwab).
- By the mid-sixth century, the waters of the Caspian had receded considerably on
- their western shore, exposing a wide pass of land around the eastern end of the
- Caucasus. 41 The Sasanian shahs constructed a very large wall (or series of walls)
- with a great gate in order to block this coastal gap as a defense against northerners
- who might otherwise easily raid Iran, Anatolia, and Mesopotamia. The scholarly
- literature documenting the existence and history of these walls through archaeology
- and written sources is enormous. 42 The town Darband eventually came to be at
- these walls at the Caspian, presumably at first just a garrison town, eventually a
- very important site. Its Persian name, meaning “Door-Bolt,” indicates its original
- purpose. Seventh century sources mention these fortifications a number of times.
- For example, the Armenian historian called Sebeos, writing in the 680s, called it
- “the Gate of the Huns.” 43 But the displacement of Alexander’s gate from Darial
- to the wall at Darband does not appear unambiguously in the sources until the
- Frankish Latin chronicler known as Fredegarius (wr. ca 660), in his report on the
- year 627, described Alexander’s gates as having been built over the Caspian Sea
- (super mare Cespium [sic]), saying that these are the gates that Heraclius opened
- to admit the savage nations living beyond them. 44 From this time onward,
- Alexander’s Caspian gates were widely thought to be those at Darband. What
- caused this confusion to be held generally between Latin and Arabic tradition? It
- seems that the Syriac Alexander Legend may have prompted it. While it may have
- intended the pass at Darial (though the geographical expertise of the author is
- subject to doubt), the invasions of the Türks through the wall at Darband in
- 626–30 must have forced the association of Alexander’s walls with that route.
- In the early twentieth century Russian scholars discovered a number of Pahlavi
- inscriptions on the old wall at Darband, dated variously at first but with a final,
- general consensus to the sixth century. 45 Thus the author of the Syriac Legend
- of Alexander was using common lore that would be readily understood by its
- audience: Alexander was thought to have built a real wall with a gate that was
- known to the inhabitants of the Caucasus region and indeed was famous far and
- wide, a wall that bore inscriptions. It is easy to see how one of these inscriptions
- might have been thought to have been carved there by Alexander.
- 186ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR’AN
- The Alexander Legend’s account identifies the people beyond the wall, the
- “Huns,” as Gog and Magog. These names originally come from Hebrew scripture.
- They are associated by Ezekiel 38–9 with northern, invading nations, serving as
- God’s punishment, and then later by the Revelation of John 20 with final turmoil
- just before the ultimate redemption. Gog and Magog are, in short, an eschatological
- motif: they are northern nations whose invasion heralds the end of time. 46 In the
- sixth century Andreas of Caesarea had made this association clear in his
- commentary on the Revelation of John, identifying Gog and Magog with the
- Huns, and in doing so he was following the sources going back at least to
- Josephus (d. ca 100). 47
- Thus the Alexander Legend combines two traditions (1) Alexander’s building
- of a wall in the Caucasus to hold out Huns and (2) the identification of Huns, a
- generic term for all Central Asian peoples, with Gog and Magog, thereby
- associating Alexander with the end of time and giving him an occasion to make
- eschatological prophecies. Alexander’s wall also explains why the Huns (Gog and
- Magog) cannot invade at just any time; they have to surmount the wall first. But
- when that wall is breached, that will be a sign of the approaching end. Once these
- traditions were combined, it was now easy to link Heraclius both with the world
- conquering Alexander, who similarly defeated the Persian emperor, and with the
- end of time.
- As already stated, in his final campaigns against the Persians, Alexander’s
- former enemies, Heraclius actually did enlist the help of Inner Asian peoples, the
- Kök Türks, in his war against the Persians (626–7) – they are called variously in
- the sources Türks and Khazars, being perhaps Khazars under Kök Türk rule,
- though the specific tribal or ethnic identity of these invaders is a subject of very
- long debate – and afterward these Türks fiercely raided Caucasian Albania, Georgia,
- and Armenia until 630. 48 One wonders whether Heraclius or his supporters
- promoted the idea that his Türk allies, summoned from the north, were the people
- of Gog and Magog come to punish the Persians. The Türk invasions are known
- from the Greek chronicle of Theophanes 49 and in some detail from a compilatory
- seventh-century source used by the Armenian History of the Caucasian Albanians
- (Patmut’iwn A„uanic’) by Movses Dasxuranc‘i. As it says, “During this period
- (Heraclius) . . . summoned the army to help him breach the great Mount Caucasus
- which shut off the lands of the north-east, and to open up the gates of #‘o„ay
- [i.e. the gates at Darband] so as to let through many barbarian tribes and by
- their means to conquer the king of Persia, the proud Xosrov.” 50 Fredegarius,
- as mentioned, also states that Heraclius opened these gates. Thus the devastating
- raids of the terrifying “Huns” – “predicted” in the Alexander Legend – also
- match the Türk campaigns in the years 626–7 (alongside Heraclius) and 628–30
- (independently), and inhabitants of Caucasian Albania and Iberia, Armenia,
- and the neighboring lands such as Mesopotamia and Syria were surely well aware
- of them.
- Moreover, Greek and Armenian sources show that these real invasions of
- Türk warriors in the early seventh century were actually interpreted then in
- 187KEVIN VAN BLADEL
- apocalyptic terms and associated with the eschatological motif of Gog and Magog.
- J. Howard-Johnston has dubbed the source of historical information on these
- Caucasian campaigns used by the Armenian Movses Dasxuranc’i as the 682 History
- (because its reports end with the year 682 and we do not know its original
- name). 51 This source describes the nomadic invaders in horrific terms in connection
- with the joint Byzantine-Türk siege of the Caucasian Albanian capital, Partaw
- (Arabic: Bardha‘a). They are depicted as ugly savages, like merciless wolves, who
- kill regardless of the victim’s age or sex. 52 The Syriac Alexander Legend describes
- the Huns in quite similar terms, also stressing their readiness to kill women and
- children and their bestial nature. 53
- The way in which the Armenian source describes these wars between the
- Byzantines, the Türks, and the Persians gives yet another example for how people
- really did expect the end of time during or soon after these wars. The 682 History
- focuses its attention on the events around the Caucasian Albanian capital of
- Partaw, but first it begins with a special prologue to the description of these
- invasions, which are characterized as part of not just local but the universal
- calamities (i tiezerakan haruacoc‘s) prophesied by Jesus in the Gospels about the
- times of tribulations (i Δamanaki 3‘ar3‘aranac‘n). 54 This understanding is based
- in the 682 History explicitly on quotations of Jesus’ prophecies selected from
- Matthew 24 and Luke 21:5–28. The full prophecy of Jesus in Matthew, not cited
- in its entirety by the Armenian historian, indicated particularly that a siege of
- Jerusalem would be one of the signs of the end (Luke 21:20). This would be
- accompanied by signs in the heavens and confusion among nations before
- the final redemption. All of this helps to contextualize the role of the Huns in
- the Syriac Alexander Legend, who are to be identified with the Türks and their
- invasions into the Caucasus region from 626 to 630.
- To sum up, the Alexander Legend is seen to reflect many specific events and
- cultural tendencies of the period around 628–9, the year it indicates as a time of
- wars between many nations beginning with the breaking of Alexander’s wall by
- the Huns. Out of these wars the Roman Empire would emerge victorious, some
- time after which the Roman Empire would permanently overthrow the Persians
- and establish a universal Christian empire. It is best understood, following
- Reinink, as a piece of propaganda composed by someone sympathetic to the need
- of Heraclius around 630, immediately after almost thirty years of demoralizing
- war and unprecedented military loss, to help in reconsolidating quickly the loyal-
- ties of the regained territories of the empire and their monophysite inhabitants.
- The success or popularity of the Alexander Legend is indicated in that it was used
- by at least three more apocalypses, the so-called Song of Alexander attributed
- falsely to Jacob of Serugh (composed just a few years later but before the Arab
- conquest, between 630 and 636), 55 the Syriac apocalypse De fine mundi attributed
- falsely to Ephraem (composed sometime between 640–83), 56 and the Apocalypse
- of Pseudo-Methodius (composed around 692, quite possibly in reaction to the
- building of the Dome of the Rock). 57 The Alexander Legend was evidently well
- known in the early seventh century.
- 188ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR’AN
- The relationship between the Alexander Legend
- and Qur’an 18:83–102
- To return to the main question, the extremely close correspondences between the
- Syriac Alexander Legend and Qur’an 18:83–102, reviewed earlier, must mean
- that the two texts are related. On the one hand, there is a Syriac text the date of
- which is almost certain, about 629–30 CE , and the historical context and political
- meaning of which is known fairly precisely (as just explained); on the other, we
- have a passage from the Qur’an, an Arabic compilation the precise dates and
- historical circumstances of which are debated by historians, but which tradition
- has understood to be collected into its current form during the caliphate of
- ‘Uthman (644–56) or at least after Muhammad’s death (632). It is possible to
- approach the problem of affiliation between the two systematically. The two texts
- must be related. That is the only explanation for their point-for-point correspon-
- dence. In that case there are three reasonable possibilities: (1) the Syriac takes its
- account from the Qur’an, or (2) the two texts share a common source, or (3) the
- Qur’an uses the account found in the Syriac.
- Could the Syriac text have its source in the Qur’an? If this were the case, then
- the Syriac text would have to be seen as a highly expanded version of the
- Qur’anic account, which would then need to be understood as an attempt to
- explain the cryptic Qur’anic story with rationalizations drawn from stories
- about Alexander. However, the Syriac text contains no references to the Arabic
- language the type of which one might expect to find if its purpose was to explain
- an Arabic text, and it is impossible to see why a Syriac apocalypse written around
- 630 would be drawing on an Arabic tradition some years before the Arab
- conquests, when the community at Mecca was far from well known outside
- Arabia. Moreover, the very specific political message of the Alexander Legend
- would not make any sense in this scenario. This possibility must therefore
- be discounted.
- Could the two texts share a common source? This also becomes practically
- impossible for some of the same reasons. The Syriac Alexander Legend was
- written to support Heraclius by indicating the author’s belief in the significance
- of events leading up to 629 AD , events supposed to be foreshadowing the estab-
- lishment of a Christian world empire and the coming of the Messiah. Yet relating
- Dhu l-Qarnayn’s first prophecy of the end times is also the very purpose of the
- story in the Qur’an: the prediction of God’s actions at the time of judgment using
- an ancient voice of great authority. As already explained, the war between
- Byzantium and Ctesiphon went very badly for the Byzantines until the very end,
- prompting an intense bout of political and religious propaganda to boost the
- desperate war effort and to consolidate allegiances after the victory. Reinink has
- shown that this Syriac text, given its contents, must be understood as pro-Heraclian
- propaganda belonging to this milieu, dated to 629–30. If Alexander’s prophecy
- was composed just for this purpose at this time, then the correspondence between
- the Syriac and the Arabic, which contains the same prophecy reworded, cannot be
- 189KEVIN VAN BLADEL
- due to an earlier, shared source. 58 Put differently, the only way to posit a common
- source is to assume that everything held in common between the Qur’anic
- account and the Syriac Alexander Legend could have been written for and would
- have made sense in an earlier context. In light of the detailed contextualization
- given earlier, and in light of G.J. Reinink’s work referred to earlier as well, this
- becomes impossible.
- Stephen Gero implied in one article that since the text comes from this date
- (629 CE or later), it cannot be regarded as a source of the Qur’an. He does not
- explain in detail but I take the implication to be that such a date of composition
- is too late for it to have reached the human agents who related the Qur’an. 59 But
- to me this seems to be the only real possibility because the others are invalid, as
- just explained. The Qur’anic account must draw from the Syriac account, if not
- directly then by oral report.
- Since the Qur’an is using the material found in this Syriac text, a text composed
- for a very specific context in contemporary politics and loaded with particular
- religious meaning, this gives historians an important opportunity to understand
- the religion of Muhammad and his early followers without relying entirely on later
- tradition. Before considering the significance of this further, it is important to ask
- how the text could have been known in Arabic and under what circumstances.
- The transmission of the story from the Syriac
- text into Arabic
- How could a Syriac text composed in northern Mesopotamia in 629–30 CE or just
- about that time have been transmitted to an Arab audience in Medina or Mecca
- so that it could become relevant enough to the followers of Muhammad to warrant
- a Qur’anic pronouncement upon it? Such a transmission would have been quite
- possible in the circumstances around 628–30 CE and soon after. Contemporary
- records in Greek, Syriac, Armenian and Arabic (poetry) repeatedly note the
- involvement of Arabs as troops and scouts on both Roman and Persian sides
- during and at the end of the great war of 603–30, and the Syriac Alexander
- Legend itself mentions Arabs as one of the nations involved in the last wars. 60
- Indeed, the Alexander Legend is likely to have been circulated widely if it was
- part of the Byzantine rallying cry after the war in the face of great losses and as
- a tool of Heraclius for rebuilding his subjects’ loyalty to the idea of a universal
- Christian empire undivided by schism. If it was aimed particularly at monophysites,
- as Reinink also proposed, then one would expect it to have been deliberately
- spread among the monophysite Arabs of the Ghassanid phylarchate, some of
- Heraclius’ close allies. 61 It is even possible that Muhammad’s own followers
- heard the story of the Alexander Legend, for example during their raid on Mu’ta,
- around the southeast end of the Dead Sea (probably September 629) just a few
- months after the Persian withdrawal from Roman territory and a few months
- before Heraclius’ triumphant return of the cross to Jerusalem. 62
- 190ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR’AN
- Yet one is left wondering exactly how apocalyptic works were disseminated
- during these decades. Since they are full of political significance for a particular
- period of time, one expects that they would have been published and promoted
- actively by their authors. In any case, one can hardly doubt that this text was
- widely known. An indication of that was aforementioned: the Alexander Legend
- provoked a monophysite response in Syriac within a few years, one more cynical
- about the durability of Heraclius’ kingdom, and information connected with the
- Alexander Legend was known as far away as Gaul a few decades later (on which,
- see the discussion about Fredegarius, later). 63
- Nor is it difficult to suggest motives for Muhammad or his followers to have
- paid attention to this apocalypse. Even with the extraordinary skepticism over
- the early records of Islam prevailing today, no one disputes that Muhammad’s
- movement was based on the belief in prophets. The Qur’an contains many
- references to the prophets of the past. The Syriac Alexander Legend presents
- Alexander the Two-Horned as just such a prophet. Moreover, Alexander’s
- prophecy clearly indicates that final wars heralding the end of the world were
- taking place. Many in the community that followed Muhammad seem to have
- shared this apocalyptic sentiment with others in the contemporary Middle East. 64
- However, the Qur’anic account leaves out all mention of the Roman Empire’s
- inevitable, universal, Christian victory before the return of the Messiah, an important
- aspect of the last section of the Legend. Instead it focuses on and culminates in
- Dhu l-Qarnyan’s prophetic warning that God’s judgment will come in a time of
- wars between great armies. Evidently that was the message of the story that was
- most meaningful to the adaptor of the Arabic account, and the elements that make
- the story sensible as Byzantine propaganda are omitted completely in the Arabic.
- One may even suppose the words of Q 18:83, “And they are asking you about
- the Two-Horned One (Dhu l-Qarnayn). Say: I will relate for you a glorious record
- (dhikr) about him,” to be a true reflection of the environment in which the Syriac
- Alexander Legend was circulating. Here was an apocalypse widely known and
- certainly currently relevant. Perhaps Muhammad’s followers or others in the
- vicinity wanted an explanation of this apocalypse from him, and so they were
- given an account of it, adapted to make it appropriate to their movement. It may
- also be possible to see reflections of the prophecy of the Alexander Legend in
- surat al-Rum (Q 30:1–6), where the war between the Persians and Romans is
- referred to, but the Romans are said to be destined to conquer, at least according
- to the preferred reading of early Qur’anic exegetes. 65
- In short, there are many indicators that the Alexander Legend could easily have
- reached the community at Medina or Mecca and that, when it did, it would have
- been meaningful to them. There is no reason to doubt this possibility, and the rela-
- tionship between the Syriac and Arabic texts determined earlier requires one to
- suppose that the Alexander Legend was in fact transmitted somehow. However,
- the precise time at which the story of Dhu l-Qarnayn entered the Qur’an – in
- Muhammad’s last years, or later – is still undecided.
- 191KEVIN VAN BLADEL
- Floods of nations and the prophecy of Jesus
- There is one more point related to the Qur’anic retelling of this Syriac text that
- deserves attention. While it is widely known that Jesus was and is regarded as a
- prophet by Muslims, since he is so designated in the Qur’an (19:30), there is little
- discussion of just what Jesus was supposed to be a prophet of. It is often over-
- looked that Jesus was thought even by Christians to be prophesying nothing less
- than the end of the world (as in Matthew 24 and Luke 21:5–28), and that this
- would be preceded by a siege of Jerusalem (Luke 21:20). The sack of Jerusalem
- by the Persians in 614 therefore shocked Christian contemporaries especially
- because it seemed to indicate that the end the world and the return of the Messiah
- were near according to the very words of Jesus. Other signs predicted by Jesus
- preceding the end would be seen in the heavens, and there would be “distress of
- nations confused by the roaring of the sea and the waves” (Luke 21:25). 66
- Contemporary sources show that witnesses to the great war of 603–30 saw the
- fulfillment of Jesus’ words in it.
- Most important here is the account of the Türk invasion of Caucasian Albania
- used by the Armenian author Movses Dasxurants‘i, the 682 History. Before
- describing how the Türks broke through the Wall at Darband, this source adapts
- the prophecies appearing in Matthew 24:6–7, 29 and Luke 21:25 in its prologue,
- paraphrasing them, saying that there would be “confusion of nations like the
- confusion of the waves of the sea” x ̋ovut‘iwnk‘ Δo„ov7rdoc‘ orpes aleac‘ covu
- x ̋oveloy. 67 Then it goes on to describe the events of the wars, using allusions to
- these paraphrased words of Jesus’ prophecy in order to prove that the prophecies
- were fulfilled. For this purpose, the Türks are likened explicitly to overwhelming
- waves, the waves of confusion among nations in Jesus’ predictions: “Then grad-
- ually the waves moved on against us,” apa takaw marΔein alik‘n 7nddem mer. 68
- After raiding Caucasian Albania the Türks turned west: “the floods (u„xn) rose
- and rushed over the land of Georgia.” 69 Even Khosro II “rose up like a raging tor-
- rent” when he set out to war against them 70 and we are reminded of the image
- again with the phrase, “waves of invaders.” 71 Thus the author of the 682 History
- takes every opportunity to show that Jesus’ prophecy was being fulfilled in the
- invasions of the Türks and the wars of this period in general.
- This image of nations as waves was also used specifically to describe the
- Türks’ overwhelming of the walls at Darband. The 682 History does not connect
- Alexander with these walls, but it does say that near #‘o„ (a town near the gate at
- Darband) were
- magnificent walls which the kings of Persia had built at great expense,
- bleeding their country and recruiting architects and procuring many
- different materials for the construction of the wonderful works with
- which they blocked [the passes] between Mount Caucasus and the
- eastern sea [the Caspian]. When the universal wrath confronting us
- 192ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR’AN
- all came, however, the waves of the sea flooded over and struck it down
- and destroyed it to its foundations at the very outset.
- (Movses Dasxuranc‘i, trans. Dowsett, History of
- the Caucasian Albanians, 83)
- These waves are not real waves of the Caspian but rather attackers from the north.
- The text immediately next describes the physical appearance of the Türk invaders,
- portrayed as monstrous, whom Heraclius had invited to war as his allies. It is striking
- that this author, a resident of Caucasian Albania, the territory immediately south of
- these walls, reports that the Türks actually destroyed the wall (i himanc‘ tapaleal,
- “demolished it to the foundations”), 72 just as Alexander’s Syriac prophecy in the
- Legend said that they would be destroyed. The Byzantine chronicler Theophanes
- also states that, at the beginning of their invasions, “the Khazars broke through the
- Gates of the Caspian” (diarrhéxantes tàs Kaspías púlas). 73 Just so, in the Qur’an
- (18:98), Dhu l-Qarnayn prophesies that God will make the barrier a heap of earth
- at the time of his promise, the final judgment (fa-idha ja’a wa‘du rabbi ja‘alahu
- dakka’a). But the difference in the Armenian source is that in it the breaking of the
- wall by the Türks was identified as part of the fulfillment of Jesus’ words.
- There are not many other surviving reports about these Türk invaders and their
- passage through the wall. That is why it is especially striking that one of the few
- other authors to mention it, the contemporary Frankish chronicler known as
- Fredegarius (wr. ca 660) describes the gates as having been built out of bronze
- (aereas) by Alexander propter inundacione gentium sevissemorum (sic), “on
- account of the surging wave of most savage nations.” Here again the invaders are
- described as a surging wave, an inundacio of nations, held back by the gates that,
- Fredegarius goes on immediately to say, Heraclius himself ordered to be opened:
- easdem portas Aeraglius aperire precipit (sic). 74 In light of the description of the
- Armenian 682 History, which was explicitly connected with the prophecies of
- Jesus, it seems likely that Fredegarius was drawing from a source that made a
- similar allusion to the waves of nations, paraphrasing Jesus’ prophecy in Luke
- 21:25. Moreover, this Latin chronicle’s association of Heraclius with the opening
- of the gates of Alexander that held back savages brings together most of the
- parts of the Alexander Legend. It is in fact the earliest known association of
- Alexander specifically with the wall at Darband (and not the wall at the Darial
- pass or another, unspecified place, as in the Alexander Legend). 75 What is
- missing in Fredegarius is reference to Gog and Magog. But in his confusion that
- chronicle’s author bizarrely thinks that the Hagarene Saracens were admitted by
- this gate, not the Türks. This implies that he identified the Arabs as the people of
- Gog and Magog, though it is not explicitly stated.
- Now, the description of the Hun invaders as waves is not found in the Syriac
- Alexander Legend. However, as shown earlier, God is portrayed as saying in the
- Qur’an 18:99, “And We shall leave them on that day surging like waves (yamuju)
- against each other” when the wall holding back Gog and Magog is demolished.
- 193KEVIN VAN BLADEL
- It is tempting therefore to think that the Syriac Alexander Legend was associated
- consciously at some stage of the transmission into Arabic with an explanation or
- oral commentary including reference to Jesus’ prophecies of the end of the world,
- since the near-contemporary source of Movses Dasxuranc‘i, the 682 History,
- shows that the reference to waves in Jesus’ prophecy was taken to refer to the
- invasions of the Türks, identified elsewhere by contemporaries as the eschatological
- peoples of Gog and Magog, and their involvement in a war of many nations.
- Fredegarius’ chronicle also describes them as waves. If this hypothesis is correct,
- the word yamuju, “surging like waves,” in the Qur’an, is essentially a verbal echo
- of Luke 21:25 (sunokhè ethnôn en aporíai ékhous thalásses kaì sálou), the
- “distress of nations confused by the roaring of the sea and the waves,” 76 Jesus’
- prophecy of what would happen before the final redemption. It suggests that
- Movses Dasxuranc‘i’s source (the 682 History) and Fredegarius’ source were not
- the only ones to consider Jesus’ prophecies to be fulfilled in these wars.
- Muhammad’s earliest followers may have understood the story of Dhu l-Qarnayn
- not just as the prophecy of the imminent end made by Alexander, regarded as
- a pious, ancient world-conqueror, but also as an allusion to the prophet Jesus’
- similar warning of the end times, now very near, which they expected as seriously
- as other inhabitants of the region, when nations did indeed crash together, as it
- might have appeared on a field of battle, like waves of the sea.
- The language of Q 18:83–102
- Now that the continuity of tradition between the Syriac Alexander Legend of
- Alexander and the Qur’anic passage in question (Q 18:83–102) is established, it
- is possible to draw some new conclusions about the language of the Qur’an here.
- Though controversy has been aroused by the recent attempt to find Syriac or
- Aramaic words in the Qur’an where they had not been part of the traditional
- reading, now one can see that where the Qur’an is definitely reinterpreting a
- Syriac text, not a single Syriac word is found, but rather there are true Arabic
- equivalents of Syriac words. 77 Q 18:83–102 is a distinctively Arabic text and in
- no way is it Syriac. Thus it is clear that Qur’anic tradition and, in particular, the
- traditional Islamic lexicography of the Arabic words in this passage prove to be
- quite reliable. A high number of exact parallels of meaning between the Syriac
- and the Arabic (though the Arabic passage is short) come to light while reading
- the Qur’anic text in a way that accords very closely with the traditional Muslim
- interpretation – interpretation of the words themselves, that is, the lexicography,
- and not the explanatory commentary or tafsir. Whatever problems one finds in
- the grammar and script of the Qur’an, it is quite clear that the words and basic
- meanings of this passage of the Qur’an have been understood by Islamic tradition
- correctly. In a sense this Syriac Alexander Legend vindicates the reliability of
- some basic, traditional claims about this Qur’anic passage, providing means to
- verify Arabic tradition.
- 194ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR’AN
- Conclusions
- The main conclusion reached here is that a Syriac text quite current and important
- in the last years of Muhammad’s life was adapted for twenty verses of the Qur’an.
- This is not entirely new, since Nöldeke made a similar argument in 1890. Nor is
- it surprising, since the Qur’an relates many other well known ancient stories in its
- own way to deliver its own message, as Muslims generally accept. However, it
- is now shown beyond any reasonable doubt that this is the case for a text
- contemporary with Muhammad. Moreover, what is most important for our under-
- standing of the adaptation of the Alexander Legend in the Qur’an is not the fact
- of the borrowing but rather the way in which the particular religious and political
- message associated with the Alexander Legend was used, truncated, and altered
- for new purposes.
- This is not a sweeping theory about the formation of the Qur’an, for it only
- concerns one small portion of a text agreed upon by almost all to have been
- compiled from different oral and written materials collected together after the
- death of the prophet. This theory makes no claims about the text of the Qur’an as
- a whole, but it nevertheless requires that the Syriac Alexander Legend be taken
- into account by any theory attempting to account for the whole Qur’an. It is only
- in studying the Qur’an as a text in its own historical context, which historians
- of the Qur’an have neglected to a surprising extent in their overdependence on
- later Arabic sources for the history of the seventh century, that it will become
- comprehensible to the historian and to those truly concerned with understanding
- its inimitable history.
- The findings of this article may be summarized as follows. The Syriac
- Alexander Legend, written in 629–30 as religious and political propaganda in
- favor of Heraclius after a devastating war, puts forth two prophecies: one about
- the impending end of the world in a war of all nations, the other predicting that
- Roman, Christian rule would come over the entire earth before the Messiah’s
- return. This text was evidently well known soon after is publication since several
- other texts written in the seventh century react to or include material derived from
- it. The Arabic, Qur’anic account of Dhu l-Qarnayn also repeats this story, but
- includes only the first of its two prophecies, along with the narrative of
- Alexander’s journeys. If Muhammad himself did speak Q 18:83–102, then it may
- well have been his response to questions concerning the publication of these
- prophecies (“They ask you about the Two-Horned One. Say. . . .”). Whatever the
- precise circumstances of the Arabic composition were, its primary message is that
- God’s judgment is very much imminent. The reference to contemporary wars
- reflects the notion, widely held around this time, that the violence and strife of
- this period were indeed an indicator of the rapidly approaching end of the world.
- It is not surprising that a community of Arabs whose religion was based on a
- belief in prophecy would find the contents of this story meaningful, since it put
- a prophecy supporting the apocalyptic sentiments that they shared, designed for
- their troubled times, into the mouth of an ancient and respected world-conqueror.
- 195KEVIN VAN BLADEL
- What is striking is that the strongly pro-Roman element, appearing especially in
- the second prophecy of the Alexander Legend, is completely omitted, though
- many details of the other parts of the story are included. Surely this omission also
- reflects some attitude in the community of Muhammad. Finally, though it depends
- (probably through oral report) on a Syriac work for its content, Q 18:83–102
- shows no hint of Syriac vocabulary. It is an entirely Arabic text likely to have been
- first uttered in the early seventh century. The extraordinary correspondences
- between the Syriac and the Arabic vindicate the early Muslim understanding of
- the meaning of the words in this text, but not their exegesis of it. 78
- Approaching the Qur’an by contextualizing it in the milieu of the early seventh
- century clearly has much to offer, but it is surprising to find how disconnected the
- field of Qur’anic research is from other historical studies on the same period and
- region, with some notable recent exceptions. It seems now that the future of
- Qur’anic studies lies not within the discipline construed as Islamic studies alone
- but rather that many major historical problems of the Qur’an will be solved by
- historians of Late Antiquity, whose approaches to the first century of Islam are
- proving more successful than the various apologetic and polemical approaches
- that predominate in the modern study of early Islam. That is perhaps to be
- expected, since scholars in the field of Islamic studies are largely concerned with
- later tradition and has generally (though not in every case) failed to find adequate
- tools for approaching the Qur’an in its original context, the early seventh century.
- Yet almost every primary source used in the present study was published more
- than fifty years ago, many of them more than a century ago. Scholars of Islamic
- studies have brought historical–epistemological problems – which are problems
- particularly when they confine themselves to late sources – so prominently to
- the foreground that it is nearly impossible to read the texts themselves, while the
- general abandonment of the basic preliminary tools of historical scholarship – the
- philological methods used to establish text that can then serve as objects of
- historical research – are sorely neglected. But Qur’anic studies now require
- scholars trained in Greek and Syriac, not to mention other forms of Aramaic, and
- even Armenian, Ethiopic and other languages, as much as in Arabic. 79 With the
- great surge in research and publication on Late Antiquity, the very context into
- which Islam came, answers to the pressing theoretical questions as well as to
- some of the historical ones also may at last appear. 80
- Notes
- 1 E.A. Wallis Budge, The History of Alexander the Great, being the Syriac Version of the
- Pseudo-Callisthenes, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1889.
- 2 Th. Nöldeke, “Beiträge zur Geschichte des Alexanderromans,” Denkschriften der
- Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, philosophisch-historische Klasse,
- 38, 1890, 5, 27–33.
- 3 Nöldeke, “Beiträge zur Geschichte des Alexanderromans,” 32, “Wie andre
- Geschichten so hat Muhammed natürlich auch diese auf mündlichen Wege erhalten.”
- 196ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR’AN
- 4 J. Renard, “Alexander,” in EQ, vol. 1, 61–2. The article “Gog and Magog” in the same
- encyclopaedia (Keith Lewinstein, vol. 2, 331–3) at least mentions the Syriac Alexander
- Legend and cites Nöldeke’s work, but it does not refer to Nöldeke’s thesis that this text
- was a source of the Qur’an, rather citing the Alexander Legend with extraordinary
- understatement inconclusively as one of a few “suggestive parallels.”
- 5 See note 8.
- 6 Like Gilgamesh, the Alexander of this Legend travels to the edges of the world where
- he found a sea of deadly waters, the touch of which meant death. Also like Gilgamesh,
- this Alexander journeys through the passage through which the sun passes every night,
- entering it at sunset and emerging at the eastern end at sunrise. Both Gilgamesh and
- Alexander follow the sun’s nightly course just after it sets, apparently having to pass
- through before the sun comes around again and catches them. In both stories, the sun’s
- passage is associated with a mountain, Mamu in the Akkadian and Mûsas in the Syriac,
- evidently related names. Thus there seems to have been an oral tradition of the
- Gilgamesh story that became associated at an unknown time with Alexander.
- Moreover, the Syriac Song of Alexander, written in reaction to the Alexander Legend,
- and a Talmudic account of Alexander contain more material derived from the
- Gilgamesh tradition (such as the search for the water of life). This points to the exis-
- tence of a late antique Aramaic oral tradition of Gilgamesh in which the name
- Alexander replaced the more ancient hero’s name. References to literature on connec-
- tions between Alexander, Gilgamesh, and the Qur’an are collected in Brannon
- Wheeler, Moses in the Quran and Islamic Exegesis, London and New York:
- RoutledgeCurzon, 2002, 10–37 (plus endnotes), though the conclusions reached there
- are sometimes doubtful (see note 8).
- 7 G.J. Reinink, “Heraclius, the new Alexander: Apocalyptic prophecies during the reign
- of Heraclius,” in G.J. Reinink and B.H. Stolte (eds), The Reign of Heraclius (610–641):
- Crisis and Confrontation, Groningen Studies in Cultural Change 2, Leuven: Peeters,
- 2002, 81–94; idem, “Alexander the Great in the Seventh-Century Syriac ‘Apocalyptic’
- Texts,” Byzantinorossika 2, 2003, 150–78 (this journal is available online at
- http://byzantinorossica.org.ru/byzantinorossika.html where it can be viewed with DjVu
- software, which is, at the time of this writing, available elsewhere online as a free
- download); now out of date but full of useful information is F. Pfister, “Alexander der
- Große in Offenbarungen der Griechen, Juden, Mohammedaner und Christen,” in F.
- Pfister, Kleine Schriften zum Alexanderroman, Beiträge zur Klassischen Philologie 61,
- 1976, 301–37.
- 8 B. Wheeler, “Moses or Alexander? Q 18:60–5 in early Islamic exegesis,” Journal of
- Near Eastern Studies 57.3, 1998, 191–215 and idem, Moses, 10–36. Wheeler does not
- address directly Nöldeke’s hypothesis of the relationship of the Alexander Legend to
- Q 18:83–102, which is the subject of the present paper, though he does refer in his
- notes to Nöldeke’s work (“Moses or Alexander?” 201, n. 52; Moses, 138, n. 55 to
- chapter 1). This strikes me as an unfortunate oversight. While this is not the place
- to redraw Wheeler’s charts showing the supposed interrelationships of these texts, a
- few critical remarks are in order to guide the reader. In discussing the Qur’an, its
- commentaries, three different texts about Alexander (the Legend, the Song, and
- different recensions of the Romance), and then also the Talmudic story of Alexander,
- Wheeler has overlooked a good deal of relevant published research (e.g. see later in
- this note) but has almost completely avoided getting into the details of the texts that
- could be used to establish their real interrelationships. To take just one of the prob-
- lematic conclusions as an example, his charts of affiliations (Wheeler, “Moses or
- Alexander?” 202–3; Moses, 17, 19) argue that the Babylonian Talmud is a source of
- the Christian Song of Alexander, which is extremely unlikely. He argues, without foun-
- dation, that when Qur’an commentators refer to extra-Qur’anic traditions, it becomes
- 197KEVIN VAN BLADEL
- 9
- 10
- 11
- 12
- impossible for the Qur’an to refer to the same extra-Qur’anic traditions; the Qur’an
- itself is cleared of relying on the same ancient traditions (Moses, 28–9). This and other
- problematic schemata aside, Wheeler has not included the Legend of Alexander in his
- chart of affiliations, but only the Song of Alexander, which has been shown not actually
- to be by Jacob of Serugh, as Wheeler seems to think: “Moses or Alexander?” 201;
- Moses, 17; following Nöldeke, actually, but missing much of the subsequent scholarship:
- for example, A. Baumstark, Geschichte der Syrischen Literatur, Bonn: A. Markus und
- E. Weber, 1922, 191; K. Czeglédy, “Monographs on Syriac and Muhammadan sources
- in the literary remains of M. Kmoskó,” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum
- Hungaricae 4, 1955, (19–90) 35–6; G.J. Reinink, “Ps.-Methodius: A concept of history
- in response to Islam,” in A. Cameron and L.I. Conrad (eds) The Byzantine and Early
- Islamic Near East I: Problems in the Literary Source Material, Studies in Late
- Antiquity and Early Islam 1, Princeton, NJ: Darwin, 1992, (149–87) 167 n. 73;
- S. Gero, “The legend of Alexander the Great in the Christian orient,” Bulletin of the
- John Rylands Library 75, 1993, 3–9, 7; and above all the introduction accompanying
- the standard edition of the Song of Alexander itself: Das syrische Alexanderlied. Die
- Drei Rezensionen, CSCO 454 (edition)-455 (translation), Scriptores Syri 195–6, Trans.
- G.J. Reinink (ed.), Louvain: Peeters, 1983. Compare Wheeler’s reference to “the brief
- so-called Legend of Alexander, which is often said to be a prose version of Jacob of
- Serugh’s (Song) . . .” (Wheeler, Moses, 17, no references given) with Reinink’s statement:
- “No scholar has seriously considered the possibility that the legend is dependent on
- the (Song)” (Reinink, “Alexander the Great,” 153). Not even Budge, who first edited the
- Legend, thought that it was a prose version of the Song; rather he supposed that they
- shared a common source (Budge, History of Alexander, lxxvii). As Reinink has shown,
- the Song of Alexander is to some degree a reaction to the Alexander Legend composed
- not many years after the latter, probably between 630 and 640 CE (Reinink, “Alexander
- the Great,” 152–5 and 165–8).
- On the translation of sabab as “heavenly course,” see my discussion later in the article.
- The verb yamuju here means to move as waves move. The reference to the armies
- moving like waves becomes important in what follows.
- Budge, The History of Alexander, text 256, line 12, trans. 145.
- Here Budge has misunderstood the passage leading to a nonsensical translation (The
- History of Alexander, text 260–1, trans. 148): “And when the sun enters the window
- of heaven, he straightway bows down and makes obeisance before God his Creator;
- and he travels and descends the whole night through the heavens, until at length he
- finds himself where he rises. And Alexander looked toward the west, and he found a
- mountain that descends, and its name was ‘the great Mûsâs;’ and [the troops]
- descended it and came out upon Mount Ülaudiâ.”
- The passage should rather be understood as follows: “And when the sun entered the
- window of heaven, he (Alexander) immediately bowed down and made obeisance
- before God his Creator, and he traveled and descended the whole night in the heavens,
- until at length he came and found himself where it (the sun) rises. He saw the land of
- the setting sun and found a mountain where he descended, named Great Mûsas, and
- they (the troops) descended and arrived with him. And they went forth to Mount
- Qlawdiyâ (Claudia).” The role of Mount Ararat, called Great (Mec) Masis in
- Armenian, in this story goes back to the very ancient times. At some unknown point it
- was identified as the mount Mamu (ma-a-mu) of Tablet IX of the Gilgamesh epic, where
- Gilgamesh finds a way into the passage through which the sun enters at nightfall. The
- later Arabic rendering of the story found in an Adalusian manuscript (on which more
- later) renders the name of the mountain as al-Judi, an Arabic name for another, smaller
- mountain at the northern end of Mesopotamia called Ararad. On the confusion about
- these mountains see M. Streck, “Djudi,” EI 2 , vol. 2, 573b-4a. On the various mountains
- 198ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR’AN
- 13
- 14
- 15
- 16
- 17
- 18
- 19
- 20
- 21
- 22
- 23
- 24
- 25
- known in Armenian as Masis, see J.R. Russell, “Armeno Iranica,” in Papers in Honour
- of Professor Marcy Boyce, Acta Iranica 25, Homages et opera minora vol. XI, Leiden:
- Brill, 1985 (447–58) 456. For the occurrence of al-Judi in a later Arabic translation of
- the Alexander Legend (discussed in the present article), see E. García Gómez, Un texto
- árabe occidental de la Leyenda de Alejandro, Madrid: Instituto de Valencia de Don
- Juan, 1929, Arabic edition 50, l. 24.
- K. Czeglédy, “The Syriac Legend Concerning Alexander the Great,” Acta Orientalia
- Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 7, 1957, (231–49) 245, who seeks to localize the
- author by reference to the rivers Haloras and Kallath. Reinink, “Entstehung,” 280, and
- idem, “Alexander the Great,” 161, suggested that the author’s home was Edessa
- or Amida.
- The Haloras (Arabic Haluras, Armenian Olor) is a high tributary of the Eastern Tigris,
- upstream north of Amida. Just beyond its head is a pass leading down from the
- Arsanias river, so that by this way one could cross between the Armenian valleys and
- northern Mesopotamia.
- Budge, The History of Alexander, text 269–270, trans. 154–5.
- Idem, The History of Alexander, text 270, trans. 155.
- Idem, The History of Alexander, trans. 146 and 156; text 257 l. 14 and 272 l. 11.
- It is well known that already in his own time Alexander was portrayed with horns
- according to the iconography of the Egyptian god Ammon. (A.R. Anderson,
- “Alexander’s horns,” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological
- Association 58, 1927, [100–22] 101.) But the problem here is not to illustrate the entire
- history of this image, something already investigated in detail by others, but rather to
- show the proximate source of the information used in the Qur’an.
- Josephus, De Bello Iudaico, 7.7.4. The ancient traditions on Alexander’s wall, its iron
- gates, and its location are treated amply by A.R. Anderson, “Alexander’s Horns,”
- 109–10 and especially in “Alexander at the Caspian gates,” Transactions and
- Proceedings of the American Philological Association 59, 1928, 130–63. The wall is
- discussed further elsewhere in the present article.
- In the Syriac Alexander Legend and in the Qur’an God gathers the peoples who will
- fight (Syriac nkannem, Arabic fa-jama‘nahum jam’an). In the earlier tradition of
- Revelation of John 20:7–9 it is Satan who “gathers” (sunagageîn) Gog and Magog
- to fight.
- It is likely that one should emend the text of the Qur’an from Yajuj (y’jwj) to Ajuj (’jwj)
- on the basis of the Syriac source combined with the attestation of the form Ajuj in
- Arabic recorded by al-Zamakhshari, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, and Ibn Hajar (E. van
- Donzel and C. Ott, “Yadjudj wa-Madjudj,” EI 2 , vol. 11, 231a-3b). An unintended [y]
- may be easily read in that position (before initial alif ) by mistake in either Syriac or
- Arabic script.
- Many examples of this usage are found in W. Wright, Catalogue of the Syriac
- Manuscripts in the British Museum, London: Trustees of the British Museum,
- 1870–1872, vol. 3 (e.g. on 1090b, 1113a, 1127b).
- For example, surat Maryam (Q 19:2) is headed, “a dhikr of the mercy of your lord on
- his servant Zakariyya.” Here, dhikr clearly means “record” or “account.” Cf. surat Taha
- (Q 20:99), where the word apparently refers to accounts of former (Biblical) times.
- E.W. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon, Book 1, part 4, 1285c, entry “sabab.”
- My study of Qur’anic sabab will appear elsewhere. The meaning “heavenly courses”
- is explicit in Q 40:37, asbab al-samawat, where Pharaoh wants to vie with Moses in
- reaching the asbab, the courses, of the heavens to behold Moses’ God. It also appears
- in Q 38:10, fa-l-yartaqu fi l-asbab, where God challenges those who vie with his all-
- mastery to reach heaven by ascending by asbab; in Q 22:15, fa-l-yamdud bi-sababin
- ila l-sama’i thumma l-yaqta‘, which has been taken by many to refer to stringing a
- 199KEVIN VAN BLADEL
- 26
- 27
- 28
- 29
- 30
- noose from the roof of a house; it appears rather to be a challenge to ascend to the
- heavens by the extraordinary means of a heavenly course, but it is doomed to failure, as
- in the previous example; and in Q 2:166, where God says that the asbab (the heavenly
- cords) will collapse on judgment day. For this list of occurrences I used Arne
- A. Ambros, A Concise Dictionary of Koranic Arabic, Wiesbaden: Reichert, 2004, 126–7.
- K. van Bladel, “Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late
- Antique context,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70, 2007,
- 223–247; Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon, article “thamanun,” Book 1, part 1, 355c-356a.
- Asbab in this verse is preferred as the lectio difficilior.
- Budge, History of Alexander, text 260, trans. 148.
- The cosmology of the Alexander Legend is very similar to that found in the Book of
- Enoch (1 Enoch) and a few of the elements of Alexander’s experiences of the far edges
- of the world are just like those encountered by Enoch. Like Alexander, Enoch visits the
- four corners of the earth. 1 Enoch 17–36 tells this story, in which Enoch sees the prison
- (1 Enoch 18:14, 21:10: Greek desmotérion, Ethiopic beta moq7h) for fallen angels and
- a place of punishment of the souls of sinners (1 Enoch 22:13, Greek hamartoloí,
- Ethiopic xat7’an) in a far western place. This is quite like the prison that Alexander
- draws those whom he sends into the deadly waters to test them. In his vision, it is the
- winds that serve as the pillars of heaven over the earth (1 Enoch 18:3: Ethiopic
- a‘7mada samay; Greek “foundation of heaven” steréoma toû ouranoû), pillars calling
- to mind perhaps the Arabic asbab al-samawat under discussion. Enoch also finds
- “gates of heaven” in the north (1 Enoch 34–6: Ethiopic x7wax7wa samay). In the
- portion of the work known as “The Book of the Heavenly Luminaries,” 1 Enoch 75–82,
- Enoch sees the gates of heaven (1 Enoch 72:2ff.: again Ethiopic x7wax7wa samay,
- sing. xox7t) and the windows (1 Enoch 72:3ff. Ethiopic maskot, pl. masak7w) to their
- right and left. The sun, moon, stars, and winds pass through these gates. (Words cited
- here are taken from the Ethiopic and the surviving Greek portions of 1 Enoch: Das
- Buch Henoch. Äthiopischer Text, J. Flemming (ed.), Leipzig: J.C. Heinrichs’sche
- Buchhandlung, 1902 and Apocalypsis Henochi Graece, M. Black (ed.), Leiden: Brill,
- 1970). It is likely that the author of the Alexander Legend knew the story of Enoch or
- shared its cosmology. Gates of Heaven, abwab al-sama’, are also mentioned in Q 7:40
- and 54:11, where in the former case they seem to be portals leading to the Garden
- (al-Janna) and in the latter case they are the hatches through which rains come to earth
- in Noah’s story, reflecting the “windows of heaven” in Genesis 7:11 (Hebrew ÷rubbôt
- hammamayim).
- G.J. Reinink, “Die Entstehung der syrischen Alexanderlegende als politisch-religiöse
- Propagandaschrift für Herakleios’ Kirchenpolitik,” in C. Laga, J.A. Munitiz, and
- L. Van Rompay (eds), After Chalcedon. Studies in Theology and Church History
- offered to Professor Albert van Roey for his Seventieth Birthday, Orientalia
- Lovaniensia Analecta 18, Leuven: Peeters 1985, 263–81; “Ps.-Methodius,” 1992,
- 149–87; “Pseudo-Ephraems ‘Rede über das Ende’ und die syrische eschatologische
- Literatur des siebenten Jahrhunderts,” Aram 5, 1993, 437–63; “Alexandre et le dernier
- empereur du monde: les développements du concept de la royauté chrétienne dans les
- sources syriaques du septième siècle,” in L. Harf-Lancner, C. Kappler et F. Suard (eds),
- Alexandre le Grand dans les littératures occidentales et proche-orientales. Actes du
- colloque de Paris, 27–29 novembre 1997, Nanterre: Centre des sciences de la littérature
- de l’Université Paris X, 1999, 149–59; “Heraclius, the New Alexander;” “Alexander
- the Great,” 2003, 150–78.
- The Era of the Greeks began in 1 October 312 BC according to the Julian Era. The dates
- can be converted by subtracting 312–311 from the Common Era year. On the use of
- this era in Syriac see P. Ludger Bernhard, Die Chronologie der syrischen
- Handschriften, Verzeichnis der orientalischen Handschriften in Deutschland,
- Supplementband 14, Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1969, 110–2. One will notice that the Era of
- 200ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR’AN
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- 32
- 33
- 34
- 35
- 36
- 37
- 38
- 39
- 40
- 41
- 42
- 43
- 44
- 45
- 46
- 47
- the Greeks, frequently called in Syriac tradition the Era of Alexander, does not actually
- correspond with the death of Alexander. The assumption of the author of the Syriac
- Alexander Legend, that the Era of Alexander began with Alexander’s death, is a
- mistake easy to make. He wanted only to signal the dates of his prophecies with an era
- in common use.
- The little that is known of the general early history and ethnic affiliation of the Sabirs
- is summarized by Peter B. Golden, An Introduction to the History of the Turkic
- Peoples: Ethnogenesis and State-Formation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia
- and the Middle East, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1992, 104–6.
- It is approved by, for example, Czeglédy, “The Syriac Legend,” 245.
- Earlier scholarship has used the signal of the year 628–9 CE in Alexander’s prophecy
- to date the text in different ways. Reinink, “Alexander the Great,” 2003, shows that the
- text was composed in 630 or just before that time.
- Reinink, “Alexander the Great.”
- For example, J. Howard-Johnston, “Heraclius’ Persian campaigns and the revival of the
- East Roman Empire, 622–630,” War in History 6, 1999, (1–44) 26–40. W.E. Kaegi,
- Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
- Reinink, “Alexander the Great,” 160–2.
- Idem, 163–4.
- Idem, “Die Entstehung” and “Alexander the Great.”
- Ibid.
- A.R. Anderson, “Alexander’s Horns,” 109–10. Idem, “Alexander at the Caspian Gates”
- gives an exhaustive account of the ancient and modern confusion over precisely where
- these gates and the pass that they blocked were located. They were at least since the
- first century CE mistakenly thought by many classical authors to have been located at
- the pass of Darial in the middle of the Caucasus. Later, around the seventh century, this
- site was confused with the pass at Darband along the Caspian Sea.
- Robert H. Hewsen, Armenia: A Historical Atlas, Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
- 2001, 89; cf. maps 56 and 57 on 66–7.
- Extensive bibliographies are found in E. Kettenhofen, “Darband,” Encyclopaedia
- Iranica, 7, 13–19; G.G. Gamzatov, “Da∫estan i: Cultural relations with Persia,”
- Encyclopaedia Iranica, 6, 568–75; D.M. Dunlop, “Bab al-Abwab,” EI 2 , 1, 835.
- Hewsen, Armenia, 85, 90–1, contains maps of these walls and in particular a detailed
- close-up map of the wall at Darband. For a list of frontier walls built by the Sasanians:
- H. Mahamedi, “Wall [sic] as a system of frontier defense during the Sasanid period,”
- in T. Daryaee and M. Omidsalar (eds), The Spirit of Wisdom: Essays in Memory of
- Ahmed Tafazzoli, Costa Mesa: Mazda, 2004, 145–59; this study makes almost no use
- of relevant Greek, Armenian, and other sources.
- The Armenian History Attributed to Sebeos, trans. and comment. R.W. Thomson and
- J. Howard-Johnston, Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1999, 1, trans. 148.
- Chronicarum quae dicuntur Fredegarii Scholastici libri IV. Cum Continuationibus,
- Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptorum Rerum Merovingicarum tomus II,
- Bruno Krusch (ed.), Hannover: Hahn, 1888, (1–214) esp. 153.
- Erich Kettenhofen, “Darband,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 7, 13–19, 16.
- In so characterizing these names I paraphrase Reinink, “Heraclius, the New
- Alexander,” 2002, 85. On the tradition of these names in Arabic, see E. van Donzel
- and C. Ott, “Yadjudj wa-Madjudj,” EI 2 , 11, 231a-33b, and K. Lewinstein, “Gog and
- Magog,” EQ, 2, 331–3.
- Andreas, Commentary on Revelation, J. Schmid (ed.) in Studien zur Geschichte des
- griechischen Apokalypse-Texte I. Der Apokalypse-kommentar des Andreas von
- Kaisareia, Munich: Zink, 1955, 223 (kephalaion 63): eînai dè taûtá tines mèn Skuthikà
- éthne nomízousin huperbóreia, háper kaloûmen Ounniká, páses epigeíou basileías,
- hos horômen, poluanthropóterá te kaì polemikótera. “Some people think that these
- 201KEVIN VAN BLADEL
- 48
- 49
- 50
- 51
- 52
- 53
- 54
- 55
- 56
- 57
- 58
- 59
- 60
- 61
- 62
- 63
- (scil. Gog and Magog) are the Scythian, Hyperborean nations, which we call Hunnic,
- both most populous and most warlike, as we see, of the entire earthly kingdom.”
- Cf. Josephus, Judaean Antiquities, 1.6.1.
- For the complicated debate about the identity of the leader of the Türks (or their Khazar
- subordinates) in these invasions see A. Bombaci, “Qui était Jebu Xak’an?” Turcica 2,
- 1970, 7–24. See also P. Golden, Khazar Studies, Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó,
- 1980, 49–51.
- Theophanes, Chronographia, C. de Boor (ed.), Hildesheim: Olms, 1963.The Chronicle
- of Theophanes the Confessor, trans. and comment. Cyril Mango and Roger Scott,
- Oxford: Clarendon, 1997, 446–8. See also the modern synthesis of W. Kaegi,
- Heraclius, 142–6.
- History of the Caucasian Albanians, trans. C.J.F. Dowsett, London: Oxford University
- Press, 1961, 87.
- J. Howard-Johnston, “Armenian Historians of Heraclius: An Examination of the Aims,
- Sources, and Working-Methods of Sebeos and Movses Daskhurantsi,” in G.J. Reinink
- and B.H. Stolte (eds), The Reign of Heraclius, 41–62. The earliest known citation of
- the work is by Anania Mokac‘i, writing some time after 958, by which time the History
- of the Caucasian Albanians had a reputation of its own (Dowsett, History of the
- Caucasian Albanians, xv-xvi). Now that two palimpsest texts written in the Caucasian
- Albanian (A„uan) language have been discovered in the Sinai and deciphered, proving
- that there was at least an ecclesiastical literary tradition in this language, it is possible
- to wonder whether the description of these invasions of Caucasian Albania was
- originally composed in the local literary language before being translated into
- Armenian. It is noteworthy that the anonymous author of these passages states that he
- came from the village of Ka„ankatuk‘ (Dowsett, History of the Caucasian Albanians,
- 84; this is the reason the compiler Movses Dasxuranc‘i is sometimes mistakenly called
- Ka„ankuac‘i), located very near Partaw, the capital of Caucasian Albania (see the map
- of Hewsen, Armenia, 41). For more on the discovery and decipherment of the
- new Caucasian Albanian texts by Zaza Aleksidze, see the internet site armazi.uni-
- frankfurt.de, following the link “Albanica.”
- Dowsett, History of the Caucasian Albanians, 83–4 (Book 2, chapter 11).
- Budge, History of Alexander, text 263–5, trans. 150–1.
- Dowsett, History of the Caucasian Albanians, 75 (Book 2, chapter 9). Edition: Movses
- “Ka„ankatuac‘i”, Patmut’iwn A„uanic‘ Amxarhi, M. Emin (ed.), Tbilisi, n.p., 1912
- (reprint of M. Emin’s 1860 Moscow edition), ed. 144.
- Reinink, “Alexander the Great,” 165.
- Idem, “Pseudo-Ephraems ‘Rede über das Ende’,” 455–63.
- Idem, “Pseudo-Methodius,” and “Alexander the Great,” 171–7.
- G. Reinink’s (“Alexander the Great,” 2003, 152) more general remarks on the inter-
- relationships of early eight century apocalypses are worth repeating: “The postulating
- of some older ‘common source,’ which is supposedly lost today, does not always form
- a satisfactory explanation of the differences between these texts and especially not, if
- we should completely ignore the specific literary and historical conditions under which
- each of these works came into being, conditions which may have led to certain
- reinterpretations, adaptations and modifications of the existing tradition.”
- Stephen Gero, “The legend of Alexander the Great,” 7.
- Budge, History of Alexander, text 155, trans. 270 l. 1.
- On Ghassanid monophysitism and their connections with Heraclius, see I. Shahid,
- Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century, Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks
- Research Library and Collection, 1995, vol. 2.
- On the raid at Mu’ta see W. Kaegi, Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests,
- Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, 171–4.
- Reinink, “Alexander the Great,” 165–8.
- 202ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR’AN
- 64 F. Donner, Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical
- Writing, Princeton: Darwin, 1998, 228–9, includes a basic bibliography for early
- Islamic apocalypticism. On apocalyptic feeling in other sources from this period, see
- Reinink, “Heraclius, the New Alexander,” 81–3.
- 65 N.M. El Cheikh, Byzantium Viewed by the Arabs, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
- Press, 24–33.
- 66 New Oxford Annotated Bible, 2nd edn. rev.
- 67 Dowsett, History of the Caucasian Albanians, 75; Tbilisi edn, 144. Cf. the Gospel text
- of Luke 21:25 edited by Beda O. Künzle, Das altarmenische Evangelium, New York:
- Lang, 1984, 1, 205: i yahe„ barba ̋oy ibrew covu ew x ̋ovut‘ean.
- 68 Tbilisi edn 154, text, Dowsett, History of the Caucasian Albanians, 84.
- 69 Tbilisi edn 156, Dowsett, History of the Caucasian Albanians, 85.
- 70 Dowsett, History of the Caucasian Albanians, 88.
- 71 Idem, 89.
- 72 Idem, History of the Caucasian Albanians, 83, Tbilisi edn, 153, l. 26.
- 73 Theophanes, Chronographia, 315–16.
- 74 Chronicarum quae dicuntur Fredagarii, 153.
- 75 Anderson, “Alexander at the Caspian Gates,” 135.
- 76 New Oxford Annotated Bible, 2nd edn. rev.
- 77 The controversial thesis was published under the name Christoph Luxenberg, Die
- Syro-aramäische Lesart des Koran, Berlin: Das arabische Buch, 2000. Detailed review
- of this work can be found in other articles in the present volume.
- 78 For evidence that there was once a more substantial knowledge of the Alexander
- Legend in Arabic, at least as early as the mid-ninth century, including some investigation
- of the Qur’an commentaries on Q 18:83–102, see K. van Bladel, “The Syriac sources
- of the early Arabic narratives of Alexander,” in H.P. Ray (ed.), Memory as History: The
- Legacy of Alexander in South Asia, New Delhi: Aryan International, 2007, (54–75)
- 64–67. See also the important study of the Alexander Romance in Arabic by F.C.W.
- Aerts, Alexander Magnus Arabicus: Zeven eeuwen Arabische Alexandertraditie: van
- Pseudo-Callisthenes tot Suri, Dissertation, University of Leiden, 2003.
- 79 This was made amply clear by Robert G. Hoyland, Seeing Islam as Others Saw It: A
- Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish, and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam,
- Princeton, NJ: Darwin, 1997.
- 80 I thank Alexander Treiger for commenting on this paper in discussion with me at
- various points in its composition and for finding a number of errors in a draft version.
- All the views expressed herein and any remaining errors are solely my responsibility.
- 203